The Sexuality Of African American Women - 1814 Words

According to Ross, J. N and Coleman, N. M (2011) , the sexual scripts theory is a theory that observes how someone’s culture and environment can influence their actions and attitudes towards sexual behaviour and their interaction with the opposite sex. According to this theory, there is a distinct relation between a person’s culture and the advance of their sexual scripts. However, although research has been conducted on how certain people’s cultures can have an impact on how they engage sexually with others and their attitudes toward sexual behaviour, research for this link on African American women has not yet been fully investigated. The scripting that African American women have most frequently been exposed to are those of racist and†¦show more content†¦Therefore, the sexual scripting won’t only affect the way others think about young African American women, but it can also influence the way in which they should view themselves (Heaton and Wi lson, 1995)2. With the sexual scripting in hip hop being that of women having to cater to the male’s every sexual need, young African American women may see this as normal behaviour that they should follow. This could therefore result in males perceiving African American women in the same way in which they are scripted in hip hop songs, as the women are being seen to follow the stereotypes/scripts in the song. Though the above information is talking about sexual scripting in regards to African American women, the information could be relevant to all women. This is due to the fact that hip hop influences women all around the world, whether it be for example European women or African American women. The hip hop songs that are being played in America are the same as those that are being played in other countries and therefore, the women in those countries are also susceptible to the sexual scripts in hip hop. This can be seen in the way they dress (imitating the women in the music videos) or even using the same slang that is being used by the rappers. It can also be seen in changing standards of beauty, where more women now think its important to have a big bum and boobs and a small waist. This could be said to be an ideal that has been portrayed to them through the use of curvaceous

School Violence Essay - 2314 Words

INTRODUCTION Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim are some of the founding fathers in the Sociological discipline. Each developing the discipline in their respective area, contributed to the social science course becoming what it is today. Durkheim the man who coined the term social facts and some sociological theories on functionalism, division of labour in society, education and social solidarity, methodology, positivism and sociology, primitive classification, religion and suicide. Durkhiem believe that social facts should be considered as things in the same way as the objects and events of the natural world. Karl Marx is the person responsible forthe conflict perspective, also had some sociological theories on alienated labour, culture,†¦show more content†¦Durkheim’s interested in a scientific approach to society manifested when he read Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. While attending Ecole Normale Superierure he seems to loose interest and became unhappy there. He rebelled against the course study, which did not teach what he wanted to learn which are modern philosophical doctrines or the recent findings of the science. Later he traveled to Germany where he studied Sociology of a year and to Bordeaux in 1887, where France’s first teacher’s center was established. There he taught pedagogy and social science, and from this position, he reformed the French school system and introduced social science to the curriculum. In the 1890’s a period where his creativity shined when he published The Division of Labour in Society in 1893. He also published two other pieces of literature, Rules of the Sociological Method in 1895 that stated what is sociology and in 1897 he published Suicide. In World War 1 he actively supported his country and was reluctant in giving into simplistic nationalist passion (in combination with the fact that he was a Jew) made his a target for the ascendant French right. They accused him of being disloyal and favoring the German enemies. In 1816 Andre, Durkheim’s only son was killed on the Bulgarian front, which became a mental block Durkheim never was able to recover. He was emotionally overwhelmed and worn-out; he collapsed and died of a stroke on November 15, 1817. EMILE DURKHEIMShow MoreRelatedSchool Violence And Schools Violence2781 Words   |  12 PagesSchool violence has become a topic that many people are engaged in a debate about. It is difficult to make a definitive definition of school violence, because there are so very many components to it. For one thing, we can be sure that school violence and bullying is something that only takes place amongst peers; this type of violence typically does not involve adults, and happens as a result of interactions from school or within the peer group. This part of the definition seems obvious. However,Read MoreSchool Violence2444 Words   |  10 PagesSchool Violence Victoria Griffin Fayetteville State University The Importance to Be Aware Of School Violence in Education Today By Victoria Griffin December 1, 2014 Abstract: The importance of knowing about school violence, the cause of school violence, forms of school violence and they ways teacher can prevent school violence was observed. A recent act of school violence is announced and the content of why it is important for teachers to be aware of school violence. School violenceRead MorePrevention of School Violence717 Words   |  3 Pages Violence is a major issue in educational institutes. Over the years, school violence has continued to increase at an alarming rate. â€Å"Every year, 3 million young people in the United States fall victim to crimes at school. Almost 2 million of these incidents involve violence† (â€Å"The Challenge of School Violence†). Violence in schools must be prevented. 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Is It Moral for Corporations to Test Cosmetics on Animals Free Essays

Is it moral for corporations to test cosmetics on animals or to use animals for medical experimentation? Pain is pain, and the importance of preventing unnecessary pain and suffering does not diminish because the being that suffers is not a member of our own species. (Peter Singer,  Animal Liberation) Human beings†¦.. We will write a custom essay sample on Is It Moral for Corporations to Test Cosmetics on Animals? or any similar topic only for you Order Now who are we? Are we Gods or we are just the top of the food chain on Earth? Do we have rights to harm other nonhuman species? These and many other questions I have in my head when I see how cruel we are sometimes to each other and even harsher toward the other nonhuman beings. Personally, I treat animals with respect because I consider them to be reasonable creatures that are in many perspectives similar to us, human beings. I am confident that animals have emotions; they can feel pain and happiness like we do. As we can see this is not enough for us to consider them our â€Å"little brothers. † From ancient times, many animals are being used for satisfying human’s different needs, such as food, transportation, and materials. Nowadays, human beings use animals not only for abovementioned purposes, but also for cosmetics and medical experiments. All these experiments definitely cause harm to animals. Majority of human population believes that all these experiments are the required attribute for all pharmaceutical and cosmetics companies. They believe that these practices can prevent many people from suffering by testing all new medicine and cosmetic products on animals first. According to this I can say that animals’ sufferings caused by people became moral issue for our last generations. In my essay I will use the work of Peter Singer â€Å"All animals are Equal,† because his work covers most of the aspects that I agree with. The main purpose of this essay is to emphasize that nonhuman beings have many similarities with human beings and they need to have basis rights for life without pain. It means that human beings must understand that all species are equal and it is immoral to make them suffer. There are similarities between human beings and animals that can be taken into account. In this case, I consider that main feelings that are possessed both by human and by nonhuman beings are pain and happiness. It is obvious that animals that surround us can experience pain. Just imagine if you kick a dog with your leg, the dog will moan and probably will un away with its tail between its legs. If this dog would not suffer from that kick it would not try to prevent that pain from occurring. On the other hand, imagine the same dog running towards her master, spinning her tail and running around him, licking his hands, jumping and sending many other positive signals that represent happiness. By visualizing these t wo images you can easily understand that animals have basic feelings like we do. For some people this might sound like nonsense if I say that people are equal to other species that are inhabiting our planet. I will not take into consideration some biological features of the beings. I want to look at this problem from the moral perspective. Today it is acceptable by many developed countries around the world for women have equal rights with men. We consider that this is a right thing, but think for a moment that essentially males and females are not the same. I mean they have equal rights but not all rights applied for both men and women, due to physiological differences or other factors. For example, P. Singer mentioned in his work that women have right to abortion so in order to make them equal to men, males also must have the same right to abortion (P. Singer, p. 172). However, men do not need this right since those instances never occur. According to this example, equality does not particularly mean that men and women have all the same equal rights. It means that they have the same rights in regards with to what they have in common. Concerning cosmetics and medical experiments on animals I can definitely say that it makes animals suffer. Let’s take medical experiments of new drugs. Nobody knows what is going to happen when any external substance is implemented on an animal. There are certain medications tested on animals and that caused the death of the animals. For example, one of the scandal cases is the sheep Dolly that died because of the cloning experiment. Obviously there is a big chance for the animals to die after certain tests are performed on them. Nevertheless, human beings still accept the fact that some species other than humans can justifiably suffer in order to possibly save some human being’s lives. However, animals that are involved in those experiments will receive nothing in return but suffering because the only purpose of those experiments is to help people. So, regarding cosmetic experiments, those animals suffer not for the sake of saving some human’s life, but for the sake of helping a number of people to look more beautiful. For instance, before introducing a new cosmetic product such as shampoo to the market a product should go through the series of tests, the part of which is animal testing. Even this single product can harm a large number of animals. Looking more attractive, in my mind, is not worth causing pain to other species. I want to say, that the number of animals’ suffering is greater than the pleasure that human beings receive. In other words the degree of harm is higher than the degree of happiness. Some people might say let’s think about the morality that animals have. The main principal of their lives is to survive. Most of them survive by killing and eating other animals. Let’s take lions as an example; they kill other animals to feed their prides. In other words, they hurt other species to make their own lives flourish. If we can call this their â€Å"morality†, then medical experiments are the right thing to do, because human beings are the part of the same biosphere as lions and other animals are. As a result of these experiments many lives of the human beings were saved. Without the experiments on animals it would be impossible to reach the constant improvements and developments in medicine. If we talk about equality with animals in this perspective then we are equal to them, since we act according to their â€Å"morality. † All these arguments are related to utilitarianism. Utilitarian theories are dealing with selection of the action that will result in the maximum good for the greatest amount of individuals (Encyclopedia Britannica). Regarding animal testing from utilitarian point of view I can say that this is not right thing to do. Since it can be moral only if it delivers the greatest good to greatest number of individuals I can calculate how many individuals are better off in this case. For example only in France in 2005, 12,117,583 animals were used for medical experiments (Andrew Knight, p. 651). Taking in account that this number represents the quantity of animals that were used by only a single country, I can definitely say that the total number of animals used for experiments in the whole world is much greater than human population. Moreover, not all people received benefits from those medical experiments, but all animals tested suffered or died. Talking about the previous example of analyses of lions’ morality I want to mention that in that case lions kill not more than two zebras to feed more than ten lions. On basis of this, greater good delivered to greater number of individuals. The professor of Oxford and Warwick universities and also the former head of Medical Research Council Colin Blakemore states that many irredeemable human diseases like Alzheimer’s multiple scleroses would never be possible to vaccinate without using all possible tools. In this case, experimental animals are one of the tools that are needed for the research of those diseases (Colin Blakemore). This claim proves that animal testing is one of the main research attributes. Therefore, in order to provide seriously ill people with quality medications, pharmaceutical companies have to test new drugs on animals. It is obvious, that fifty years ago it was normal for researchers to use animals for medical and cosmetics experiments, because they did not have any alternatives. It is known, that today’s technologies have features that can substitute usage of animals. If it is possible to use other means than animals why people do not do that? It seems to me that until animal tests are regarded as moral by human beings this practice will continue. Moreover, there will be a lot of different arguments that will support the idea of animal experiments. Yet, the fact that we can do medical experiments in 21st century without torturing animals is obvious. It is immoral to cause pain to a human by another one. The main reason for that is that human can suffer. Everyone in his or her life experienced pain and know what it is. So, it became immoral thing to harm other people. Moreover, every person has a right to not experience pain from other individuals. In other words people are bounded by their rights and morality from making other people suffer. We are protected by rights and by laws not to be harmed, but animals are not protected by those rights and human morality. Nevertheless, they can suffer like we do. In this case both human and nonhuman beings experience relatively the same feeling of pain. Since the pain is the one factor that makes us similar to animals, why other species do not have rights to not suffer? One of the reasons why animals do not have some equal rights with people is probably because all those concepts of equal rights were created by human beings. It becomes obvious that human beings are selfish in this perspective. If you are the man it does not mean for me that you can decide for others what to do with their lives. What about the fact that human beings are the part of the biosphere of our planet. I think this is immoral to not take into account that animals can suffer like we do. In these circumstances I agree with P. Singer as he introduced an example about an orphaned infant. He said that â€Å"would be experimenter ready to make his experiments on orphaned infant if it would the only option to save many lives. If experimenter would be against using orphaned infant for experiments, then his readiness to use animal is simple discrimination. † But many adult animals are more receptive to pain than human infants. (P. Singer, p. 176). This is not good and people must understand why they have to do something about it. I agree that this practice is hard to change. Still, looking back in the history there were many practices that were accepted to be moral. For instance, I want to mention slavery and discrimination of African American or women. All of these cases were perceived to be normal at those times, but now moral values have changed. It means that there is a chance that people will comprehend the pain that we cause to nonhuman beings. People cannot decide for animals what to do with their lives. It is not moral to benefit one by harming another one. In this case all experiments on animals must be reformed. However, it is rooted deeply in our moral values system, so this values need to be changed as they were changed in other cases similar to this one. Human moral issues are changing all the time. Just recall the time when all people we classified by skin color or other signs. It was normal to discriminate black people only because they have a different skin color. Going back we can see that white people at those times would never accept that they are born equal to black people. It took a lot of time to change those beliefs. Now Barak Obama is the president of USA while a century ago this fact would appear implausible. It means that it is possible to change moral believes of human beings by giving them enough arguments for that. According to this I can definitely say that there are enough arguments that can be used to prove that animal experiments can be reformed. I want to conclude that the problem of animal experiments is related to each individual. According to utilitarian theory the animal experiments are not a right thing to do, because harm of these experiments is greater than the positive outcome. Number of ruined animals’ lives, is much greater than the number of saved human beings’ lives. The only way to prevent animal usage is to persuade people that this is inapplicable in our modern community. As I mentioned there are many ways, including technological improvements, to not use animals for medical experiments. The technology of 21 century allows constructing virtual models of live organisms that are able to predict a reaction of a tested medicine. This argument can cause the change in human beings’ morality, and animals will get equal rights with humas, by taking into consideration their abilities to experience pain and happiness like we do. Moreover, our morality is the subject that can be changed, as we can observe by looking back in the history. We need to start doing it, because we are the most intelligent creatures on the Earth and the future of many animals is in our hands. Work cited 1) Blakemore, Colin. â€Å"Should We Experiment on Animals? Yes. †Ã‚  The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 29 Nov. 0028. Web. 22 Feb. 2012. http://www. telegraph. co. uk/science/science-news/3353960/Should-we-experiment-on-animals-Yes. html. (I trust this web site, because the author seems to me very intelligent, since he is the professor of Oxford and Warwick universities and also the former head of Medical Research Council Colin Blakemore) 2) Knight, Andrew. Systematic Reviews of Animal Experiments Demonstrate Poor Human Clinical and Toxicological Utility. †Ã‚  ATLA -NOTTINGHAM-  35 (2007): 641-60. Print. 3) Peter Singer, â€Å"Chapter 14: All Animals are Equal† in Hugh LaFollette (ed. ), Ethics in Practice. 171-180 4) Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. New York, NY: New York Review of, 1990. Print. 5) â€Å"utilitar ianism. †Ã‚  Encyclop? dia Britannica. Encyclop? dia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclop? dia Britannica Inc. , 2012. Web. 22 Feb. 2012. http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/620682/utilitarianism. How to cite Is It Moral for Corporations to Test Cosmetics on Animals?, Essay examples

Political Science Democracy - Citizenship and the Global City

Question: Discuss about thePolitical Sciencefor Democracy, Citizenship and the Global City. Answer: Introduction: As mentioned by Newton and Van Deth (2016) from the ideologies framed by various theorists, a state can be identified as a body that exercises exclusive political authority over a population in a specific territory. The power of a state is sovereign in nature. However, depending on the source of this power, the political system of the state can be formulated. Democracy i.e. the citizens being the source of the sovereign power of a stare can ensure the best good of the citizens. Here, for the successful completion of this essay the author has chosen a hypothetical country and named it Illusia, and suggested the electoral system with a choice for the parliamentary democracy depending on the multicultural social scenario of the country. Discussion: Description of the Country: Language, Race, Religions: The name of the country is Illusia. It is a hypothetical country and named by the author himself. The population of the country is one crore. The sate is a multilingual nation. The major languages are English, Chinese and Meluha, a tribal language used by a certain indigenous group living at the northern part of the state. The population of Illusia has a diverse socio-cultural background. It is a nation where the citizens come from different racial background as well. Here, the citizens are mainly divided into three racial groups. The majority of the citizens are the Asians and the brown people. However, the Europeans are forming a minor part of the population whereas the indigenous Meluhas constitute a negligible portion of the population. The majority of the population is the Christians. However, a significant portion of the population celebrates the Hindu rituals. On the other hand, there are small percentages of people who are Buddhist by religion. Last but not the least; the Meluhas conform to their indigenous religion i.e. Hulia. This particular race consists of very negligible percentage of the population of Illusia. The Electoral System, Senate and Parliament: As mentioned by Clark et al. (2012) to uphold the political and civic rights of the citizens in a nation, representative democracy is one of the most popular political idea as it ensurs the best possible political participation by the citizens,. As mentioned by Kesselman et al. (2012) the success of democracy largely depends on defending the rights of the minority by the majority and its government within a state. As discussed by Shaw (2015) in a country where people have diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, it is the best to opt for a representative democracy. Moreover, Moran and Parry (2015) have identified, a country with large population can most successfully be integrated into the political exercise with the help of the representative republic political system. As discussed earlier, the population of Illusia is quite large and the people with different cultural backgrounds are constituted in different parts of the country. Hence, it is important to introduce the republic and fede ral democratic system. As mentioned by Isin (2013) with the introduction of Federalization, the nations are opting toward more delegation of power. This federal democratic approach will be helpful for effective development and self-sufficiency of the provinces. As mentioned by Doorenspleet and Pellikaan (2013) a federal government is more efficient than a centralized governmental structure, as it shares the power to the provinces to identify and solve their local issues. Thus with specialized governmental policy more effective service can be provided where the nation is divided into separate provincial and cultural identities. Hence, Illusia will also exercise local governance in every province. However, for serving the basic services of the state, a central government will be formed. As mentioned by Kamrava (2012) with the idea of Welfare state the centre will serve the requirements like social security services, army and the infrastructure. For providing a liberal, democratic structure, the centre will be governed by a Prime Minister who will be directly elected by the citizens of the nation to the senate. Moreover, the nation will opt for a parliamentary system of democracy. As mentioned by Shaw (2015) with a parliamentary government, less probability of dictatorship by the government can be ensued. With a multiple party political system, the government comes under a constant scrutiny of the oppositions, which keep the government debarred from degenerate into a dictator. As mentioned by Kesselman et al. (2012) the parliament will be divided into two houses, the senate and the house of commence. As mentioned by O'neil (2015) for the most powerful participation in the state authorities, the lower house members will be elected by the citizens with adult franchise. The senate members will elect the prime minister among themselves. Thus, an indirect republic system will be promoted to ensure the rule of majority and the philosophy of establishing the government of the people, by the people, for the people (Newton and Van Deth 2016). As mentioned by Clark et al. (2012) for upholding the diverse requirements of the citizens with different cultural backgrounds a multi party political culture will be promoted. Here, in Illusia, the citizens are from different cultural, financial and social backgrounds. As mentioned by Moran and Parry (2015) with local parties advocating the voice of every sector people the process of obtaining success for the parliamentary government can be ensured. The parliament will be responsible for serving the military, infrastructure and social security services. At the provincial level, the state will opt for self-government. The provinces will opt for their own constitution and legal system. As mentioned by O'neil (2015) federalism will ensure a great level of political participation among the citizens. Thus, with political involvement, the citizens of Illusia will be aware of their rights and civic obligations. Conclusion: Democracy is the most progressive political system. With globalization, the nations are continuously being more decentralized and liberal democracies. With a multi party system within the parliamentary government, the highest level of representation of every sector of people can be ensured. For a culturally diverse state, like Illusia, it is important to opt for democratic policy where the representatives of every stature of people will be ensured to protect the rights of the minorities as well. Moreover, the provinces with different sociological identification need a government, which provides them the accessibility of power to self-control for ultimate celebration of the democratic policies. Hence, it can be concluded that opting for a republic, federal, parliamentary government the best democratic exercise can be ensured in Illusia. References: Clark, W.R., Golder, M. and Golder, S.N., 2012. Principles of comparative politics. CQ Press. Doorenspleet, R. and Pellikaan, H., 2013. Which type of democracy performs best?. Acta Politica, 48(3), pp.237-267. Isin, E.F., 2013. Democracy, citizenship and the global city. Routledge. Kamrava, M., 2012. Understanding comparative politics: a framework for analysis. Routledge. Kesselman, M., Krieger, J. and Joseph, W.A., 2012. Introduction to comparative politics. Cengage Learning. Moran, M. and Parry, G., 2015. Democracy and democratization. Routledge. Newton, K. and Van Deth, J.W., 2016. Foundations of comparative politics. Cambridge University Press. O'neil, P.H., 2015. Essentials of Comparative Politics: Fifth International Student Edition. WW Norton Company. Shaw, S., 2015. Democracy in Practice: Ceremony and Ritual in Parliament. The Journal of Legislative Studies, 21(3), pp.451-452.